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Fredrika Bremer (17 August 1801 – 31 December 1865) was a Swedish writer and a feminist activist. She had a large influence on the social development in Sweden, especially within the are of women's rights.〔(''Bremer, Fredrika (1801–1865)'' (Project Runeberg) )〕 ==Biography== Fredrika Bremer was born at the manor Tuorla in Piikki parish outside of Turku in Finland, then a Swedish province, as the second daughter of five and the second child of seven to the wealthy iron master and landowner Karl Fredrik Bremer (1770–1830) and Birgitta Charlotta Hollström (1777–1855). Her father, the son of the rich ship owner Jacob Bremer and Ulrika Fredrika Salonius. When she was three years old, in 1804, the family moved to Sweden proper, where they spent their winters in the capital of Stockholm, and their summers in Årsta Castle, about 20 m. from Stockholm. Bremer was given a conventional education customary for her sex and class in contemporary Sweden. After having been given private tuition at home, a trip to the continent with her family in 1821-1822, to Germany, Switzerland, France and the Netherlands was the final touch on the upbringing before her social debut.〔(''Bremer, Fredrika'' (Anteckningar om svenska qvinnor) )〕 She and her sisters were raised to marry and became society hostesses within the upper class, and upon her return to Sweden, she made a successful debut in society life in Stockholm and the gentry around the summer estate, where she was admired for her accomplishments.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Bremer found the restricted and passive family life of women suffocating and frustrating. Her own family life affected her views. Her father has been described as a dominant patriarch and somewhat of a house tyrant, and according to Bremer, the family was placed "under the oppression of a male iron hand".〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Her mother was a socialite and society hostess who, according to Malla Silfverstolpe, developed in to a wise person under the influence of her daughters as a widow.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Reportedly, she had a bad relationship to both her parents during her childhood, when she was described as rebellious, but came closer to her parents after her social debut, when her literary talents became admired in society life.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 She had an early interest in literature, and wrote French poetry already at the age of eight.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Her trip to Paris had awoken her interest for social reform and stimulated "the desire to know and the desire to enjoy", and the enforced passivity of the contemporary woman's role could not satisfy her and led to a depression as described in her diary: "Embroidering on an eternal and grey piece of collar, I became increasingly numb, that is to say in my more vivid powers, my wish to live. The felling of torment did not numb, it worsened day by day, as the frost during a coming winter. The fire of my soul flickered of anxiety with but one wish - to forever die out".〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Her depressive crisis was treated by her sisters, who involved her in charitable activity in the country around Årsta Castle from 1826. Her social work gave her a purpose in life and she herself admitted as much, describing how she engaged in it with the passion of a convert, and recovered from the depression in 1828 as a better person than before.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Her social work was also the beginning of her literary career, as her initial purpose was to make use of the accomplishments in which she had been educated, such as drawing and literature, to earn money to finance her charity.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Fredrika Bremer debuted as an artist in the serial ''Teckningar utur hvardagslifvet'', published in 1828-1831. She described her debut as a revelation, and that when she begun to write, she felt the words coming "as champagne bubbles out of a bottle".〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 The success was great, particularly the novel ''Familjen H.'', which was a part of the second and third serial. Fredrika Bremer never married. In 1831, she became acquainted with Per Johan Böklin (1796-1867), a reform educator and principal at a school in Kristianstad. Her literary success and her new calling as a writer made her decide to study and acquire more knowledge within literature and philosophy, and between 1831 and 1833, she took private lessons for Böklin.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 She studied Platon, Hegel and the philosophers and writers of the Romanticism. Through an English friend, Frances Lewin, she came to support the English Utilism of Bentham, which came to affect her political views of liberalism.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Per Johan Böklin proposed her marriage, but after several years of consideration, she declined, though they remained lifelong friends and correspondents, and Böklin often gave her advice which influenced her writing.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 After the hasty marriage of Per Johan Böklin to another woman in 1835, Fredrika Bremer retired from Stockholm society life and settled as a guest with her friend, countess Stina Sommerhielm at Tomb manor in Norway, where she remained for five years until 1840, except for a visit to Stockholm during the 1837-38 season.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 She initially had a thought of becoming a nurse, but used her time studying literature, notably Goethe.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 It was in the home of Sommerhielm where she wrote her novels »Grannarne» and »Hemmet», which has been referred to as her master pieces and became famed both nationally and internationally.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Upon her return to Sweden in 1840, she and her unmarried sister Agathe Bremer applied to the king to be freed from the guardianship of their brother. In accordance with the Civil Code of 1734, all unmarried women were under guardianship of their closest male relative, similar to a wife being under the guardianship of her husband, and Fredrika Bremer, as well as her unmarried sister Agathe, were formally the wards of their brother since the death of their father in 1830. An unmarried woman, however, had the right to be declared of legal majority by petition to the monarch, and as their brother was unable to handle money responsibly and had already wasted the fortune of their father, the Bremer sisters had themselves declared of legal majority and was thereby given the right to handle their own economy.〔Carina Burman, Bremer – en biografi, Bonniers, Stockholm , 2001. Nyutg 2013. ISBN 91-0-057680-8, sid 181–182〕 She spent the social winter season of 1841–42 alone in Årsta Castle, where she produced her religious work »Morgon-väckter» (1842), in which she participated in the contemporary debate ''Strauss-striden''. In it, she stated her personal religious belief as first a matter of sense and second a matter of a mystic personal revelation.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 She awoke opposition but was given support by Geijer, Tegnér and Böklin. The work was also important in the way that it was the first signed by her full name, which officially made her a literary celebrity.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 In 1842, Fredrika Bremer discontinued the self imposed isolation in which she had lived for seven years and officially returned to participate in social life, in parallel wish to become active as a social reformer, and she also started to become more actively engaged in social work.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Her interest for social reform issued a period of a number of travels in her life, after which she published successful descriptions of her travel experiences. Initially traveling around Sweden, she visited the Rhine area in 1846, after which she published »Syskonlif» with impressions of the tensions lading up to the French Revolution of 1848.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Between 1849 and 1851, she made a great journey to the United states, inspired by the travel stories of Martineau and Tocqueville. Her purpose was to study the effect of democratic institutions upon society, especially the effect on women's terms. She left Copenhagen 11 September 1849, and arrived in New York city 4 October. She then visited Boston, the Northern states, the Antebellum south, the West, and spent three months in Spanish Cuba, before returning to New York, from which she left for Great Britain 13 September 1851, not arriving back in Stockholm before November after six weeks in England. She published her impressions in »Hemmen i nya verlden» (1853—54).〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Upon her return to Sweden, she engaged actively in social reform work. She co-founded the women's charitable societies ''Stockholms fruntimmersförening för barnavård'' (Stockholm Women's Society for Children's Care) in 1853, with the purpose to care for the orphans of the cholera epidemic,〔Johan Carl Hellberg: Ur minnet och dagboken om mina samtida personer och händelser efter 1815 / Åttonde delen. Oscar I:s sista regeringsår och riksdag, vicekonung och prinsregeringar, 1856-1857〕 and the ''Fruntimmersällskapet för fångars förbättring'' (Women's Society for the Reform of Prisoners) in 1854, with the purpose to care for criminals in prison.〔Elmund, G. 1973. Den kvinnliga diakonin i Sverige 1849–1861. Uppgift och utformning. Lund: Gleerup. Filosofilexikonet 1988. Stockholm: Forum〕 In 1854, she made an pacifist appeal for world peace and solidarity in the Times.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Her next contribute to social reform was her novel »Hertha» (1856). The novel was written as to question the legal minority of adult unmarried women, who were by the Civil Code of 1734 placed under guardianship under their closest male relative unless they applied for a dispensation from the monarch.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Bremer opposed the guardianship system through this novel, and it aroused a debate about the guardianship and the legal minority of unmarried women referred to as ''Herthadiskussionen'' (The Hertha Discussion):〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 this debate reached the parliament and in 1858, it resulted in a reform by which women were declared of legal majority at the age of 25 (in 1858 by a simple application to the nearest court, and from 1863 automatically).〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 In the novel, Bremer had also raised the question of a "women's university": this also became a part of public debate and resulted in the foundation of the ''Högre lärarinneseminariet'', a state school for the education of professional women teachers, in 1861.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Bremer was not present during the Herta Discussion. Between 1856 and 1861, she participated in her second great journey, this time through Europe. Between May 27 1856 and September 1857, she visited Switzerland, Brussels and Paris. In 1857-58, she traveled through the Italian peninsula. Finally, she left Messina for Malta and from there to Palestine, where she arrived 30 January 1859. She left for Constantinople and from there to Greece, where she remained from August 1859 to May 1861, returning to Stockholm 4 July 1861. This trip resulted in her travel story »Lifvet i gamla verlden» (1860—62).〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Upon her return to Sweden, she expressed her satisfaction over the reforms in women's rights performed after the debate aroused by her novel, and often took an interest in the ''Högre lärarinneseminariet'' and its students.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 She also took an interest in the first women's magazine in Scandinavia, founded during her absence; ''Tidskrift för hemmet'' by Sophie Adlersparre.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Fredrika Bremer made her last trip to Germany i July-October 1862. Upon her return, she continued to participate in social life and charitable projects. She was reportedly pleased with the reform of the parliamentary system and the abolition of the Riksdag of the Estates, as well as the abolition of slavery in the United states.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Fredrika Bremer has been described as a humble and unselfish character but also energetic and with a strong will, who cared little for material possession and had a passion for reform and personal development for herself as well as for others and society. When asked once by Carl Gustaf von Brinkman why she could never be an art collector, she replied: "It is certain that nothing worth money would ever be happy with me - offer me 50 riksdaler for anything - except a warm overcoat - and I will let it go".〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Geijer once commented upon her unselfishness with the comment: "Yes my dear Fredrika, if you truly could push us all into heaven, you wouldn't mind staying outside yourself".〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Apparently, she was an adaptable person, had a large collection of friends and was herself was described as a loyal friend.〔Fredrika Bremer, urn:sbl:16936, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Sverker Ek.), hämtad 2015-11-18.〕 Fredrika Bremer died at Årsta Castle outside of Stockholm, Sweden. In 1 January 1831, she was awarded the Lesser medal of the Swedish Academy, and in December 1844, she was awarded the grand medal of the same academy. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Fredrika Bremer」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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